THE AU-SAN-GATE TRAIL.

The Vilcanota (House of the Sun) Mountain Range is Peru's 2nd largest Andean Range. It is located East of Cuzco in the Cuzco Region and in the Puno Region. It is made up of 469 glaciers. To the East the Rivers San Gaban and Azangaro are the natural boundaries which separates it from the Cayahuaya Range. A visit of its highest Mountain, Ausan-Gate glacier (6,384m) completes a challenging visit to the Inca heart of Peru.
The Au-san-Gate Mountain (6,384m) is the 4th highest Mountain in Peru. It is situated around 100 km South East of Cuzco in the Cuzco Region, Canchis Province, Pitumarca District, and in the Quispe-Canchi Province, Ocon-Gate District.
The region is inhabited by llama and alpaca herding communities, and constitutes one of the few remaining pastoral societies in the World. High Mountain trails are used by these herders to trade with agricultural communities at lower elevations. Currently, one of these high-altitude trails, "the road of the Apu Au-San-Gate, that encircles the Au-San-Gate Mountain, is one of the most renowned treks.
The trek goes over 3 passes where the view of all the surrounded area is breath-taking. Turquoise lakes, llamas and alpacas, glaciers, hot springs, encounters with local Andean people, all together make the visit a rewarding experience.
The area has 4 major geological features: 1)the Andean uplift formed by Granits; 2)the hanging glaciers and glacial erosional Valleys; 3)the Permian formation with its singular colors: red, ocre, and turquoise; 4)the Cretaceous, limestone Forest.
The Cuy-Llur Rit'i or Star Snow Festival attracts thousands of Quechua pilgrims. It is celebrated about 20 km North of the Au-San-Gate at the foot of the Cullqi-Punku and Sinaqara Mountains, one week before the Corpus Christi Feast. The Ukukos (spectacled bear) of all the groups, symbolically representing a character in the Andean Mythology, climb the glaciers of Cullqi-Punku and spend the night there in complete solitude. Then they come down bringing renewed energies placed in huge ice blocks that they carry on their backs for the people of their communities. The energy of the waters of the Mountain are believed to have the power of healing the body and mind of the ones leaving among them that are overwhelm with negative energy.
Cullqi-Punku (Quechua 'Cullqi'='Silver'; 'Punku'='Reservoir') Mountain (5,522m) is situated in the Northern extensions of the Vicanota Mountain Range in the Cuzco Region, Quispe-Canchi Province, in the districts Carhuayo and Ocon-Gate and in the Paucar-Tambo Province, Cosni-Pata District.
The Mountain lies North West of the lake Sin-Crina-Cucha, South East of Minas-Niyuq. The lake named with the same name as the mountain is situated South of the Mountain.

CUICOCHO LAKE OF THE GODS.

The Cuicocho Lake lies in extinct Volcanic crater and is 200 m deep. Three volcanic domes emerge from the lake at various spots. The Lake contains some hot springs. It is part of the ecological forest reserve of Cotacachi-Cayapas in charge to preserve fragile Andean plant species.
This natural reserve and partly rain-forest is located in the Imbabura and Esmeraldas provinces of Ecuador 140 kms / 87 mi North from Quito. It extends from the mountains of the Sierra to the western edge of the coastal rainforest in the Esmeraldas region. the symbol of the reserve is the condor. The presence of volcanic lakes and waterfalls along with rapids made the reserve sacred.
Despite its status as a protected area, the reserve is under  threat because its buffer zone were included in a "mineral surveying program" funded by the World Bank and aimed to support the development of extracting industries in the hands of international corporations. Protests from communities living in the surveyed area who are concerned that the publication of maps of mineral deposits will attract those corporations were successful in blocking the publication of those surveys.
This region has not been extensively farmed and replanted with eucalyptus or pine trees, as so much of the inter-andean highlands have been, so the preservation of the plant species here is a very important effort. The plants have evolved its own adaptations to high altitude (reduced water availability, low temperatures and high winds), since the climate conditions are not as severe as those at higher altitudes.
Cotacahi is one of the six cantons (2nd-level subdivisions below provinces) of the Imbabura Province. The Imbabura Volcano is located in the province. Best reached from the town of La Esperanza, the 4,609-meter-high mountain is climbed by the locals in a single day.
The city of Cotacachi, which is the seat of the canton, is one of Ecuador's leading artisanal manufacturers of leather goods. The ecosystems of the area and the native flora and fauna makes this canton one of the ecological richest zones in South America.
The dormant Volcan Cotacachi overlooks the canton.
The 1868 earthquakes occurred at 19:30 on August 15 and 6:30 on August 16. It caused a severe damage in the northern part of Ecuador and in Southwestern Colombia. The estimated magnitude was of 6.3 and 6.7. Together they caused up to 70,000 casualties. The earthquake of 15 August occurred near El Angel, an extensive paramo ecosystem with diverse biotopes, in Carchi Province, close to the border with Colombia, while that of August 16 occurred near Ibarra, the capital city of the Imbabura Province, lying at the foot of the Imbabura Volcano and on the left bank of the Tahuando River, 70 kms / 43 mi North East of Quito, the Ecuadorian capital. The towns of El Angel and La Conception were severely shaken by the 1st earthquake and El Angel was described as ruined. Ibarra was devastated, with every building destroyed and only a few walls left standing. Nearby Otavalo was left without a single house standing and 6,000 people died. In Imbabura, there were 15-20,000 casualties. The last shaking lasted for one minute. On 26 April each year, in the "Return Festival," Ibarra celebrates the return of the inhabitants in 1872 after a 4 year absence following the  earthquake.
The Inca ruler Atahualpa is said to have been born in the Inca settlement of Caranqui about 2km from the city of Ibarra. Ibarra was founded in 1606 by order of Miguel Ibarra, president of the royal audience of Quito. The development of the city included the systematic construction of public buildings including an important number of churches. The earthquake of 1868 destroyed most of them. The city had to be re-settled in 1872.
Handmade ice cream or sorbet was first made in Incan times using snow or ice from the nearby Imbabura Volcano, which is no longer snow bound, using a large bronze pan surrounded by ice shavings, the juices of various fruits and stirred into the pan to freeze.
The name Cotacachi has many meanings. In "Cara" it means "lake with women breast" which refers to the general shape of the island in Cuicocho Lake; in Quechua it means powder salt.

THE ATACAMA PLATEAU

The Atacama Plateau (Puna de Atacama) is an arid High Plateau, in the Andes of Northern Chile (15%) and Argentina (85%). In Chile (15%) Puna's territory is included in the regions of Antofagasta and North-Eastern Atacama. In Argentina, Puna's territory is extended in the provinces of Salta, Jujuy, and Western Catamarca.
The Plateau's elevation averages 4,500m /14,800ft above sea level, and it spans an area of 180,000sq / 69,000sq mi.
Before the War of the Pacific (1879-1883), the Puna de Atacama region belonged to Bolivia. In 1898 it was ceded to Argentina in exchange for recognition of Tarija as part of Bolivia. Chile, which had annexed the Litoral Province from Bolivia, declared the exchange illegal. The border was defined in 1899 after the Puna the Atacama dispute.
The War of the Pacific took place with Bolivia and Peru on one side and Chile on the other. The war ended with a Chilean victory, which gained a significant amount of land from Peru and Bolivia.
Tarija Department is located in South-Eastern Bolivia, bordering with Argentina to the South and Paraguay to the East. The city of Tarija was founded in 1574 and is both the capital and the largest city within Tarija Department, with an airport (Captain Oriel Lea Plaza, TJA) offering regular service to primary Bolivian cities, as well as a regional bus terminal with domestic and international connections.
Tarija boasts South America's second-largest natural gas reserves. Increased gas revenues and foreign direct investment in gas exploration and distribution are destroying the surrounded habitat and fauna of the region. Political instability at the national level has hindered development of the reserves, as the region has chosen to align with pro-autonomy forces which aim at the devolution of considerable powers away from the central government in favor of the departments.
The main economic activity of the region is the wine industry. The land and climate are ideal for grape and wine production. The city of Tarija holds an annual Festival of Wine and Cheese.

THE ACON-CAGUA, THE HIGHEST MOUNTAIN IN AMERICA.

The Acon-Cagua is the highest mountain outside of Asia, at 6961m/22,838ft above sea level, and by extension the highest point in the Western Hemisphere and the Souther Hemisphere.
It is located in the Andes Mountain Range, in the Mendoza Province, Argentina, about 15 km from the international border with Chile. The Mountain has a number of glaciers, the largest is about 10 km long, which descends from the South face to about 3600m altitude. Two other glacier systems are about 5 km long. The most well-known is the North-Eastern, as it is a common route of ascent.
The Acon-Cagua was created by the sub-duction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate during the geological recent deformation of the Earth's lithosphere (crust and uppermost mantle); but it is not a Volcano.
The name comes from either the Mapuche 'Acon-Hue', meaning 'The River that comes from the other side"; or Quechua 'Ac-Kon Cahuac', meaning "Sentinel of Stone,"or 'Anco-Cahuac' meaning "White Sentinel"; or the Aymara 'Janq'U Q'awa, meaning "White Ravine," or "White Brook."
In mountaineering terms Acon-Cagua is an easy Mountain if approached from the North, via the normal route. It is the highest "non-technical" mountain in the World, since the Northern Route does nor require ropes, axes and pins. It is easy to climb. Although the effects of altitude are severe (atmospheric pressure is 40% of sea-level at the summit), the use of supplemental oxygen is not common.
Altitude sickness affect most climbers to some extent, depending on the degree of acclimatization. Even if normal climb is technically easy, multiple casualties occur every year on the Acon-Cahua. In January 2009 alone 5 climbers died. This is due to the underestimation that large numbers of climbers who make the attempt does about the objective risks of the elevation and of cold weather, which is the real challenge on this mountain. Given the weather conditions close to the summit, injuries because of it are very common.

THE ILL-IMANI MOUNTAIN.

The Ill-Imani (Aymara) is the 2nd highest peak (6,460m/21,200ft)on the Bolivian Andes, after Nevado Sajama, and the 18th highest peak in South America, towering on the SouthEastern skyline from La Paz, Bolivia's capital. 
The Ill-Imani is the highest Peak in the Cordillera Real (part of the Cordillera Oriental, a subrange of the Andes) of Western Bolivia. It lies near the cities of El Alto, 2nd-largest city (974,754 inhabitants) and the highest major metropolis in the World, with an average elevation of 4,150m/13,615ft; and La Paz (Chuqui Yapu in Aymara), Bolivia's 3rd most populous city, after El Alto and Santa Cruz, the seat of the country's government and capital of La Paz Department,  at an elevation of roughly 3,650m / 11,975ft above sea level. Ill-Imani is quite visible from the cities of El Alto and La Paz, and is their major landmark.
The Cordillera Real is located SouthEast of Lake Titicaca, and East of the Bolivian capital of La Paz in the South American. This Range of fold mountains were formed by orogeny forces responsible for large structural deformation on the Earth's crust and uppermost mantle due to the interaction between tectonic plates. It measures 125 km in length and 20 km in width. Despite the fact that it is only 17 degrees South of the Equator, the Cordillera Real is relatively densely glaciated. This is due to its  proximity to the Amazon Lowlands with its associated moist air masses.
Geologically, the bulk of the Cordillera Real is largely composed of granite. Granite is a type of igneous rock granular grain size in texture always massive, lacking any internal structures, hard, tough, and therefore used as a construction stone.
The Cordillera Oriental are parallel Mountain Ranges of the Bolivian Andes placed on the Eastern and North Eastern margin of the Andes. Large parts of the Cordillera are forested and humid areas rich in agricultural and livestock products.
Geologically the Cordillera Oriental is formed by the Central Andean fold and thrust belt, that is a series of Mountainous foothills adjacent to an orogenic belt, which forms due to contractional tectonics.
The Ill-Imani's 150-foot summit crest sends glaciers sprawling down its flanks on all sides. The snow line lies about 4,570m/15,000ft above sea level, and glaciers are found on the Northern face at 4,983m/16,350ft. The Mountain has 4 main peaks; the highest is the South summit, Nevado Ill-Imani, which is a popular ascent for locals and international mountain climbers.
Ill-Imani was first attempted by an European climber in 1877. The French-Austrian explorer Charles Wiener tried to reach the main summit but failed and only did reach a SouthEastern sub-summit on 19 May 1877. Wiener named it the "Pic de Paris," and left a French flag on top of it. In 1898, British climber William Martin Conway and 2 Swiss guides, Maquignaz and Pellissier, made the ascent of the peak, again from the SouthEast. They found a piece of Aymara rope at over 6,000m/20,000ft. proving that the ascent to the peak was already achieved by the Aymara people of the region as an everyday task.

MARCA-HUAMA-CHUCO

Marca-Huama-Chuco is an archaeological site of Pre-Inca Ruins in the Northern Peruvian Highlands of La Libertad Region of Peru. The site's location was until recently a difficult place to gain access. Today a new road make it accessible on 3 1/2 hours ride from the city of Trujillo, the 3rd largest on the country's Pacific Coast, and location of many Moche heritage sites.
The place was set atop of the nexus of 3 Mountain Valleys at an altitude of more than 3,200m/10,000ft.
It is considered significant because the site encompasses more than 3 km of land, with massive castles and unique circular doubled-walled structures. The domestic residences were multi-storied galleries which originally housed numerous individual families.
It was built defensively on top of the isolated mesa that is 5 kilometers long and 500 meters wide, with a vast view of the surroundings. The complex contains several major compounds. These were surrounded by curved stone walls as high as 12 meters.
 It is believed that it was an oracle center and used for religious ceremonies because of the remains of inner galleries, rooms and plazas. In the later stages of the culture, it was used as a burial site for the chosen ones because the human burials were found within the walls.
Latest investigations of the site suggested that the occupation may have been seasonal, with a maximum population of 6,000. Their estinmate is based upon the quantity of arable land and water availability.
The construction apparently began around 400 CE and continued until approximately 800 CE. Before being conquered by the Incas, Marca-Huama-Chuco was known as Northern Peru's most important religious, military, political, and economic center.
One of the earliest sketch maps on Marca-Huama-Chuco comes from the 18th century document prepared by Bishop Baltazar Jaime Martinez Companon. Early descriptions from the late 19th century were done by Europeans hunters of gold and silver mines.
Charles Wiener (1851-1913) was an Austrian-French "explorer," best known as the one who travelled extensively in Peru, climbed the I-Lli-Mani and came close to "re-discovering" Machu-Pichu. He published in 1880 the first topographical description of Marca-Huama-Chuco and named its principal compounds. Wiener travelled in Peru in 1875 and was told in Ollanta-y-Tambo about certain ruins, including those at Huayna-Picchu and Machu Picchu, but he was unable to reach them during his visit. He travelled from Ollanta-y-Tambo up over the Panti-Calla Pass until he arrived at the Ur-u-Bamba River at the bridge crossing of Chuqui-Chaca. Consequently, Wiener's own account of his travels were published in 1880 in a book that Wiener wrote named "Peru and Bolivia" (Paris, 1880), containing the description of how locals in Ollanta-y-Tambo had told him about the ancient Inca Towns. He made a detailed map of the urubamba Valley, on which he included 2 peaks and marked them with the names Matcho-Picchu and Huayna-Picchu. The book also contained a map of the Valley of Santa Ana, incorrectly placing Huayna-Picchu south of Matcho-Picchu on the East side of the Ur-u-Bamba.
The map then was published in Paris by the Societe de Geographie in 1877, 3 years before the publication of Wiener's Book.
Hiram Bing-Ham (the ultimate "re-discoverer of Machu-Picchu) was very familiar with Wiener's book.
When a Cuzqueno told Bing-Ham that he had seen "ruins finer than Choque-Quirau" at a place called Huayna-Picchu, Bing-Ham knew what he was talking about because it resembled Wiener's account.
Wiener is mentioned in Mario Vargas Llosa's novel "The Storyteller" as the French-Man who in 1880 came across "2 Machi-Guenga corpses, ritually abandoned in the River," which the French-Man decapitated and added the heads to his collection of curiosities collected in the Peruvian Jungle.

CERRO DE PASCO, PERU

Cerro de Pasco is a city in Central Peru, located at the top of the Andean Mountains. It is the city capital of the Pasco Region. The Region is divided into 3 provinces, which subdivide into 28 districts. They are: Daniel Alcides Carrion (capital: Yana-Huanca); Oxa-Pampa (capital: Oxa-Pampa); Pasco (capital: Cerro de Pasco).
Cerro de Pasco, at 4,330 m/14,210ft elevation, it is one of the highest cities in the World, and the highest or 2nd highest city with over 50,000 inhabitants. The highest point of human habitat in the region is reached up at Yana-Cancha area at 4,380 m above the sea level.
At that elevation the region has an Alpine Climate. The average temperature of the warmest month is lower than 10*C (50*F), and the average annual temperature id 5.5*C, and the average annual rainfall is 999 mm.  It has humid summers, dry winters and chilly to cold temperatures throughout the year. Snowfalls can occur sometimes.
Cerro de Pasco is connected by road and by rail to the capital city of Peru, Lima, as far as 300 km.
Cerro de Pasco became one of the World's richest silver producing areas as far back as the 17th century, and still is an active mining center.
The production of those silver mines were the chief source of wealth for William Randolph Hearst (April 29, 1863 - August 14, 1951) and his family. He was born in San Francisco, to millionaire mining engineer, gold-mine owner and U.S. senator (1886-91) George Hearst and his wife Phoebe Apperson Hearst.  Both parents were of Scots-Irish origin. She became  the 1st woman regent of the University of California, Berkeley and "funded many anthropological expeditions." William was enrolled in the harvard College class of 1885. While there he was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon, one of the oldest North American fraternities with now holds 54 active chapters across the USA and Canada;  the A.D. Club (a Harvard Final Club), a strictly secret society; the Hasty Pudding Theatricals, known for its burlesque cross-dressing musicals;  and of the Harvard Lampoon, an undergraduate humor publication; before being expelled for antics ranging from sponsoring massive beer parties in Harvard Square to sending pudding pots to his professors (their images were depicted within the bowls).
Searching for occupation, in 1887 William took over management of a newspaer, the San Francisco Examiner, which his father received in 1880 as re-payment for a gambling debt. Giving his paper a grand motto, "Monarch of the Dai-Lies," he acquired the best equipment and the most talented writers of the time, including Ambrose Bierce, Mark Twain, Jack London, and a political cartoonist Homer Daven-Port. A self-proclaimed populist, William went on to publish stories of municipal and "financial corruption," often attacking companies in which his own family "held an interest." Within few years, his paper dominated the San Francisco market. Then he envisioned running a large newspaper chain, and he knew that his dream was impossible without a triumph in New York. In 1895, with the financial support of his mother, he bought the failing New York Morning Journal. He imported his best managers from the San Francisco Examiner and quickly established himself as the most attractive employer among New York newspapers. He was "generous," paid more than the competitors, gave credit to his writers and was unfailing polite, unassuming, "impeccably calm," and indulgent of "prima donnas, eccentrics, bohemians, drunks, or reprobates so long as they had useful talents. With them he built the nation's largest newspaper chain with the help of sensationalized stories of dubious veracity. He exercised enormous political influence, and was famously blamed for pushing public opinion leading the United States into a War with Spain in 1898. he was twice elected as a Democrat to the U.S. House of Representatives. His life story was the main inspiration for the development of the lead character in Orson Welles's film "Citizen Kane."

CAJAMARCA, THE THIN RIVER CITY AND THE HOUSE OF THE CONDOR.

Cajamarca is the capital and largest city of the Cajamarca Region as well as an important cultural center in the Northern Andes.
It is located in the Northern Highlands of Peru at approximately 2,750 m (8,900 ft) above sea level in the Valley of The Mashcon River.
Cajamarca has a mild highland climate, and the area has a very fertile soil. The city is well known for its dairy products and mining activity in the surroundings.
Cajamarca has numerous examples of Spanish colonial religious architecture, beautiful landscapes, pre-Hispanic archeological sites and Hot Springs at the nearby town of "Baths of the Inca"(Banos del Inca).
The history of the city is highlighted by the Battle of Cajamarca, which marked the ambush of the Inca by Spanish invader whom was captured and murdered there.
The name "Cajamarca" has a Quechua origin meaning "Town of Thorns" or "Cold Place" depending on the source. For more than 2000 years, the city and its surroundings, have been occupied by several cultures. Traces of pre-Chavin cultures can be seen in nearby archaelogical sites, such as Cumbe Mayo and Kuntur Wasi (Condor House).
The Archaeological Complex of Cumbe Mayo (THIN RIVER) is at an average altitude of 3,500 meters above sea level and 20 km SouthWest from Cajamarca. It is the place where the highest hydraulic technology were applied on the construction of the Canal's lines built by an advanced pre-Inca society around 1500 BCE. They are incredible perfect, turning at perfect right angles over smooth rock to slow down and regulate the movement of water.
The Aqueduct is a canal of approximately 9km in length, carefully carved in volcanic rock to divert the water from the hills to cultivation  fields an a large reservoir at the foot of the Apolonia Hill. Heading towards the Aqueduct there are some stairs sculpted in stone, and a carved stone used as a ceremonial altar. Also prominent is The Sanctuary, a huge cliff resembling a Man's Head, where interesting and undecipherable petroglyphs have been found.  They used Obsidian Hammers to create such perfect combination of Nature. The caves and shelters of the area evidence other stone engravings.
In an important section of the route there are also impressive and rare geological formations identify as the shapes of monks forming part of a procession. For this reason, this impressive area, that suddenly appear from the landscape, contrasting the flat, grass-covered Plains around Cajamarca,  located in CumbeMayo is known as "The Monks" (Los Frailones). It gives the area a beautiful and profound spiritual dimension.
The name "Cumbe Mayo" which translates to "Thin River," is thought to be one of the oldest Man-made structures in South America.
The House of the Condor (Kuntur Wasi) is the name given to the ruins of a religious center where people congregated, with complex architecture and stone sculptures. It is located at the HeadWaters of the Jequetepeque River, in the region of the city of Cajamarca near the small town of San Pablo. Lithosculptures have been found, similar to the Chavin style.
It is thought to have been constructed around 1200 BC, during the initial period. The architecture consists of a hill-top Temple, quadrangular platforms, a sunken courtyard, and series of rooms. In the floor of one room there is an anthropomorphic figure made of clay, about 75 cm (30 in) in height. It is painted with cinnabar red, malachite green, and black, tellow, and pink. Its face has big square eyes and a wide mouth with prominent canine teeth. There are also stepped platforms and funeral structures.
In 1989, scientist from the University of Tokyo excavated 4 tombs at Kuntur Wasi. Valuable items, such as pectorals necklaces (breastplates), gold crowns (the famous 'crown of the 14 faces), ornamental stone beads, earrings, sets of dishes, and iconography of peoples were discovered in the Burial Site. Since the beginning of the excavations of the University of Tokyo's archaeological mission, 8 Tombs have been found.
The Jequetepeque Valley provided a transportation corridor between the Coastal Region and the HighLands.

LA OROYA, THE OLDEST SETTLEMENT IN HIGH LANDS.

La Oroya is a mining town on the the River Mantaro in Central Peru. It is situated on the Altiplano some 176 km East-North-East of the national capital Lima.
In 1533, the Spanish established a small settlement and started mining for precious metals in the area, but isolation and transport difficulties hindered extraction.
Later, the area's strategic position made it a center of guerrilla activity. One decisive battle of military engagement of the Peruvian War of Independence (August 6,1824), fought in the Highlands of the Junin Region, took place nearby, Chacamarca (Junin).
Mining in the area developed gradually, and did not greatly expand until the railway from Lima to La Oroya was completed in 1893. The railway, an extraordinary feat of engineering, was planned by the Polish railway builder Ernest, Malinowski. He was a Polish expatriate, voluntarily exiled in Peru because of the political problems in his country, occupied at that time by Germany, Russia, and Austria.
In 1851, the engineer proposed to extent the newly opened Lima to Callao railroad as far as the Valley of Jauja, situated in the fertile Mantaro Valley, at an altitude of 3,400 m (11,200 ft).
Jauja, for a short time was once the capital of Spanish Per, prior to the founding of Lima as the new capital. The name is used figuratively to mean a "never never land" or a "land of milk and honey." One oral tradition mentions that the Inca ordered the mutilation of men's and women's hand in Jauja, at the Pampa de Maquinhauyo, 8 km (5 mi) South of present day Jauja, instead of killing all of them because through them the land became polluted.
In 1868, Henry Meiggs, a promoter/entrepreneur in the railroad business. He was born in Catskill, New York. He began his career in the lumber field but was ruined by the Panic of 1837. He restarted it in Brookling, but again met with failure. Finding success in sending lumber to the Pacific Coast, he relocated to San Francisco during the peak of the California Gold Rush on the cargo ship "Albany" laden with lumber, which he sold there for 20 times its cost. Like many others that arrived in San francisco in 1849, he got into real state speculation. He promoted the possibility of piers along the North shore area, on the grounds that it was closer to the Golden Gate than the usual harbor, ;ocated just South of Broadway Street on the shore of what is today downtown San Francisco. He became extended financially in trying to do this. In order to make ends meet, he illicitly obtained a Book full of Warrants on the Street Fund (which had little money in it), which the city's controller and major had fallen in the habit of signing the Book in advance. Meiggs forged the remaining information and raised money. Before his fraud was discovered, he left San Francisco on October 6, 1854, heading for South America. According to him, he landed with only $8,000 (half a million, by some accounts) and became a successful railroad entrepreneur. While his Peruvian contracts were wildly profitable, by 1876, his financial situation had begun to disintegrate. He found it more difficult to obtain credit. His 1877 death only worsened the economic chaos in Peru. He was buried at a local cemetery Presbitero Maestro on the road that link Lima to Callao.
The Callao, Lima & Oroya Railway opened to Chilca by 1878 and reached La Oroya by 1893 and huancayo (346 km/215mi) in 1908. It is the 2nd highest Railway in the World (following opening of the Qing-zang Railway in Tibet), with the Galera summit Tunnel under Mount Meiggs at 4,783 (15,692 ft) and Galera station at 4,777m (15,673 ft) above sea level.
In 1923 a branch was opened from Ticlio (making it the World's highest junction) to Morococha via La Cima (4,818m/15,807 ft above sea level), from where in April 1955 a spur line opened to Volcan Mine, reaching an (at the time )World record altitude of 4,830 m (15,850 ft). Both branch and spur have since closed to passenger traffic. Only minerals (mainly from La Oroya), fuels, cement and food products run through the spectacular landscapes of the Peruvian Andes.
La Oroya polymetallic smelter and a copper mine at Cobriza were sold to Doe Run Corporation in 1997, the largest integrated lead producer in North America and the largest primary lead producer in the Western World. Their revenues doubled with the purchase. When the purchase was complete the company agreed to improve the facility to make it less harmful for the environment. Instead, it allowed toxic elements used in the smelting process to contaminate La Oroya's air, water and soil. As a result of years of pollution, the Hills immediately around the smelter became completely denuded, the River became more toxic, and the Health of the local inhabitants suffered. Residents have been found to have alarmingly high concentrations of lead in their blood, and in the drinking water, and many have bronchial troubles.
A 1999 study conducted 2 years after Doe Run's acquisition showed high levels of air pollution, with 85 times more arsenic, 41 times more cadmiun, and 13 times more lead than amounts generally considered safe.
On February 5, 2008 Doe Run reported that the state Health Officials confirmed that the quality of the Yauli or Mantaro Rivers was no longer impacted by the smelter's liquid discharges. However, the company also stated that the River was still polluted by mining and other operations upstream.
Despite advancements in other areas, sulfur dioxide emissions reached alarmingly records in August 2008. It is a very toxic gas with a pungent, irritating, and rotten smell.
On other Planets in the Universe, the toxic gas can be found in various concentrations, the most significant being the atmosphere of the Planet Venus, where it is the 3rd most significant component of the atmospheric gases. There, it condenses to form clouds, and is a key component of chemical reactions in the Planet's atmosphere and contributes to global warming. It has been inplicated as a key agent in the warming of early Mars.
The question is now: What are the real causes of our Global Warming? My answer is: Man's greediness toward the Earth's natural reaches."

THE CITY OF TARMA, THE PEARL OF THE ANDES.

The city, named by Antonio Raymondi as "The Pearl Of the Andes," is situated  in the Center of Peru, at an elevation of 3080 meters above sea level in Tarma Province; 266 kms East of the city of Lima, in the Mountain Ranges of the Andes, in the Junin Region of Peru within a fertile Valley.
The region is one of Peru's most beautiful Andean Regions, with green rather than snow-caped mountains stretching down from high, craggy limestone outcrops into steep canyons forged by Amazon tributaries powering their way down to the Ocean. It is the 2nd biggest city in Junin.
By far it is the nicest Mountain Town in Peru that sits on the edge of the Andes almost with spitting distance of the Amazon Forest and where many important civilizations lived in the past, from pre-Inca to the Inca Culture.
The pre-Inca large ethnic groups were: the Chinchaycocha, the Xauxa and the Wanka. The Chincahycocha settled to the Northwest of the region, mainly what is today La Oroya and the Northern part of the Valley. The Xauxa settled to the Southern part, south of the Tarma River. The Wancas and another small group called Palcamayo settled to the East section. When the Inca time arrived, they built up a new Province in Tarma. They moved the locals to other sections of the Empire and built a strategic  religious and political Province, which allowed them to exercise better control of the Region. The capital of the Inca Province was Tarma Tambo. The Spaniards moved the capital or Head of the Province from Tarma Tambo, located at the slope of a Mountain, to the bottom of the Valley, called Pampas (1538). Originally the zone was a town of natural people called "Pueblo de Indios."
Tarma is one of the region's most welcoming cities with a balmy climate by altiplano standards, surrounded on all sides by Mountains and steep, deep Valleys, and poised on the eyebrow of the jungle with a road linking the Central Andes to the Amazon Basin. It has a lot to offer, ruins, caves, waterfalls, and just a short distance to the Jungle.
Tarma makes a good living from its traditional textile and leather industries, and from growing flowers for export as well as for their own use.
The Town's greatest claim to fame is its connection with Juan Santos Atahualpa's rebellion in the 1740s and 1750s: taking refuge in the surroundings Mountains he defied Spanish troops for more than a decade, though Peace returned to the Region in 1756 when he and his allies mysteriously disappeared.
Today Tarma is a quiet place, disturbed only by the flow of trucks climbing up towards the jungle foothills, and the Town's famous Easter Sunday procession from the Main Plaza, when the streets are covered by carpets of dazzling flowers.